Since the use of scientific approach to explore management practices, performance is not the topic of the. Management is based on the coordination of people, money and material to achieve the established objectives, the goal can be improved employee satisfaction, financial indicators, improve the efficiency of production, etc.. In short, companies can measure the performance of these indicators, and the performance objectives are expected to achieve performance. Although different scholars have different perspectives on the performance management, the core and key points are the same. First, performance management is a systematic project which needs many aspects. Secondly, the performance management must be from the goal and plan of the organization to start, no target performance management activity has no meaning; again, the need to measure and evaluate the performance of the performance; finally, the results of the performance evaluation should be applied to the next phase of performance improvement. [1]
In the actual management practice, performance management activities occur every day, and even in some key positions need to perform real-time monitoring of the performance of employees, is the use of the highest frequency of human resource management practices. But due to improper operation or the concept of not changing in time, managers often performance management is equal to the formality of the fill table, going through the motions of evaluation activities, and assessment are regarded as mandatory sorting tool, inevitably conflicted emotions, so performance management often fall into the plight of the "target", it is difficult to play its guiding role and strategic.
In order to overcome this problem, researchers have been trying to improve the performance management system from the aspects of management concept, management tools, assessment indicators, such as the financial indicators to measure the performance of the company in twentieth Century. With the complexity of management, the performance management is constantly innovating in order to cope with the impact of diversification. This article will start from the development of the performance management, the macro performance management of the model concept and micro performance management tool for the two aspects of performance management in recent years, the reform and innovation to sum up and sort out, in order to provide reference for the development of performance management ideas.
The development of performance management
The ultimate goal of management is to improve the organization's performance, although the concept of the performance management is clearly put forward in 1970s, but the performance management and performance improvement ideas are always closely around the development of management science. From the perspective of performance management tools, the development of performance management has gone through more than a century. In 1900, the three brothers put forward the concept of DuPont analysis and input-output analysis (ROI) based on financial ratio (), and advocated the relationship between the input resources and the income to evaluate the enterprise performance, and clear the idea of quantitative measurement of performance indicators. 1920 Chandler H., Thomas Johnson Geoffrey proposed a more diversified financial indicators to examine the performance, including cash flow changes, asset liability ratio, profit rate, etc.. This way of measuring performance of financial data for a long time, until 1980s, Kaplan T. and Johnson R. for the first time pointed out that the financial indicators can not reflect the real situation of enterprise development, and in the confusion: management accounting, the rise and fall of the promotion of customer indicators to measure corporate performance. 1990s is the golden period of performance management, the performance measurement index, performance evaluation and feedback of performance management research, which is more representative of the Neely Lynch (TQM) and ISO9000 Cross (2001) to measure enterprise performance; R. Ken-nerley and K. SMART (1991) proposed the Balanced Scorecard and Adams Pyramid; Kaplan and Norton (1992), Drucker's goal management theory and performance management information system.
In summary, the business model has experienced from product production to marketing and customer service as the center of the shift, in order to cater to the trend and continue to improve the business situation, performance management has also experienced from simple financial indicators to the customer, comprehensive performance indicators.
Two, the reform and innovation of performance management
Along with the emergence of various innovative management ideas, combined with the impact of external information, technology, economic and social environment, performance management is the process of continuous improvement and transformation, and plays an irreplaceable role in the human resource management system. On the macro level, performance management is more and more emphasized to strengthen the connection with other management functions, which requires the enterprise management to stand in the strategic height, with the help of effective integration of performance management mode, to promote the improvement of enterprise performance, micro, performance management gradually to expand and enrich the original concept, with tools and methods to meet the needs of modern enterprise management. For this, we will come up from the macro and micro level, the research on the performance management in recent years, the research on the remarkable changes and innovation achievements.
(a) the reform and innovation of the concept of performance management
Performance management has experienced from the traditional performance evaluation to the comprehensive, strategic performance management of the transition. Early traditional performance appraisal is based on the assumption of "economic man". In theeyes of enterprises, employees and machinery, plant, is just a tool to create profits, must try their best to save and artificial cost control; and in the eyes of the staff, as a worker, between enterprises and owners is purely economic employment relationship, he will not is not willing to to take the initiative to care for enterprise development. So in the management of employees, employee business owners set up all sorts of rules and regulations to control the behavior to achieve cost reduction. In simple terms, the traditional performance evaluation idea is the "control of the mind, the detention of the soul", ignoring the differences between human and machine equipment. Under the guidance of this idea employees holding but not meritorious, but to "work attitude, think themselves to complete the task performance is to avoid being employers deduct wages.
Total performance management emphasizes that the company objectives and targets, the department goals and indicators, goal posts and index set, decomposition and implementation of the entire process management, as well as in goal setting, goal, goal in the play the role of feedback, especially emphasizes the core of the process control loop in the performance management activities, both to study procrastination "post - sector organization" performance vertical path, but also take into account the process performance of the horizontal path, while emphasizing the performance management as a system, is a from the target set to the whole process of performance feedback.
The outstanding characteristic of the strategic performance management is that it always takes the enterprise strategy as the traction, including the system's index decomposition, the index monitoring, the index and the review system. The strategy oriented performance management system is a system which makes the enterprises in the planning, organization, control and other management activities. The main content includes two aspects: one is the performance management system based on the enterprise strategy, and the two is based on the performance management system. Strategic performance management system has the following characteristics: first, focus on the long-term strategic goals, long-term goals as a traction performance management oriented direction; two is concerned about the full range of enterprises, which is the basis of strategic performance management system, the company's strategic objectives to be decomposed into various departments, and ultimately to each employee; four is the emphasis on process and results; five is a significant decision of enterprises must take into account the implementation of performance.
图 1 战略绩效管理的设计思路
(two) the reform and innovation of performance management objectives
Performance management has experienced a change from the goal to improve the performance level of the staff to improve the work of the staff for the goal of the change. Although the previous performance management system to improve and continue to improve the performance level and improve the overall performance of the organization as the goal, but in the actual application process is still difficult to avoid the phenomenon of performance management activities, such as to avoid touching the interests of disputes, the leadership of the Department of performance assessment results are too similar, pull the gap.
At the same time, the performance management emphasizes the monitoring and the results of the work process, and also increases the workload of the corresponding performance management participants, and creates a tense situation of employment relationship. Therefore, although the current performance management system to improve the efficiency of the organization provided a good idea, but because of the management tool itself with the administrative compulsory and lack of incentive, leading to performance management has been in a passive and difficult to implement state [2]. How to motivate staff and leaders, so that performance management itself is much less resistance, but is the focus of performance management innovation and change.
Work [3] (Engagement) refers to the work related to the positive emotions and cognitive status, including energy, dedication and focus on three specific dimensions. Research shows that employees with high job involvement have a higher working knowledge, which will be active in the existing work, and can significantly improve the level of employee performance, reduce turnover, [4]
Improve the internal innovation ability and learning ability, and ultimately bring about the improvement of organizational performance. Based on the above ideas, the Canadian scholars Gruman and Saks from the perspective of staff work, [5] will be the individual and the overall, micro and macro integration, proposed to improve and improve the work of employees, and promote the efficiency of performance management system model (see Figure 2). This model integrates the process of the PDCA cycle of performance management in the process of improving the management of the employee's work, that is, through the work of the drive of the individual, and to drive the whole performance management process and achieve the goal. [6]
First of all, in accordance with the objectives of the process of management to allow employees to have a clear understanding of the enterprise's performance plans and objectives, and to get the approval of both employees and enterprises, this goal is to build a stable psychological contract is an important prerequisite to improve the work of employees. Secondly, in the performance management of the most core part of the work, the company will use all resources to support and promote the work of staff, such as the use of job analysis method to arrange people post match, encourage and shape inclusive leadership style to improve the quality of leadership, build a healthy corporate culture to encourage high performance team building, etc.. Finally, in the evaluation and feedback process, the evaluation index, which includes the traditional objective evaluation index, has increased the level of employee job involvement, and the positive results feedback to employees in a timely manner, so as to encourage employees to work in and improve performance.
In addition, in the performance management system, which is the goal of the work, in addition to the basic "plan, evaluation, evaluation, feedback and plan" cycle process, the dotted line in Figure 2 also indicates the effective implementation of the various sub processes, and also affect and drive the work of employees. For example, in the performance target conclude and recognition stage, to participate in the management enables employees to build relations stable psychological contract based on positive social exchange, thereby increasing staff input; in the feedback stage, employees pay for their results are clear, timely knowledge and understanding, the openness of the two-way communication let employees feel their jobs get the attention of the superior, so as to stimulate the next phase of work commitment and passion.
图 2 基于提高员工工作投入的绩效管理体系
(three) change and innovation of performance management object
Performance management in the research object has experienced from the performance of the staff to the team performance, from the general staff performance to the core staff, knowledge based employees, executive performance change.
1 performance management based on team
Dynamic management environment and the nature of the work has led to the birth of the team as a unit of the enterprise division of labor form, and common in modern enterprise management practice. The characteristics of team members, such as heterogeneity and cooperation, make the team performance management and individual performance management have a big difference, so the performance management based on team as a unit is also an important direction of research on the theory and practice of performance management. Team performance not only emphasizes the work of the team, but also concerned about the team's collaboration process. Naler (1990) believes that team performance includes three aspects: the aim is to reach the situation, the job satisfaction of team members, and the ability to continue to develop. At the same time, the performance of the team is also a factor that contains a number of factors, the impact of the various aspects of the "input - collaboration - production" process (see Figure 3). The team is composed of a diverse group of employees, so the team put in the individual members of the individual differences, as well as the exchange of information between the individual and the common vision. Under the influence of environmental factors such as the external organization culture, enterprise system and other environmental factors, a series of complex collaboration, such as the transmission of information flow, social networks, and the formation of team results.
Figure 3 the output mechanism of team performance
As a result of the impact of environmental factors on external factors on the performance of the team, we should focus on how to measure the performance of the team members. As a result of the performance evaluation. As a result of the performance evaluation. Can work as a performance evaluation of the performance. As a result of the performance evaluation. As a result of the performance evaluation. As a result of work performance. As a result of the performance evaluation. As a result of the performance evaluation. As a result of performance evaluation. As a result of work. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a result of performance evaluation. As a result of work. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a result of performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a result of performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. As a result of performance evaluation. As a performance evaluation. Working Group Team together to promote the overall performance of the enterprise. [7]
2 performance management for core staff
According to the "two eight rule", the core staff accounted for 20% of the total number of enterprises, but master more than 80% core technology and important resources, so the relationship between the core staff to handle the relationship with the core staff, improve the work satisfaction, the overall competitiveness of enterprises has important significance. Conversely, if the enterprise of the core staff to their strong dissatisfaction, then their counterproductive behaviors and termination to the enterprise caused loss will be much larger than that of ordinary employees. Therefore, the core staff performance management should be the focus of the enterprise performance management. First of all, performance management is a two-way communication and communication process, the core staff of the performance management focus should be placed in the management and strengthen communication.
The core staff of the enterprise is the knowledge workers, in the performance management of the evaluation index is difficult to quantify, the process of fair perception is not high, so the core staff performance management should be clear that the entire performance management process should be transparent and open, encourage the core staff to participate in the performance management of the whole process, especially in the setting of performance measure index to reach a consensus. On the one hand, it can ease the pressure on the manager's work, on the other hand, it can make the core staff more understanding of the work flow and organization of their own expectations, and will not question the fairness of the assessment. Secondly, in the performance results of the application should pay attention to long-term incentives. Generally speaking, the core staff's achievement orientation is stronger, and the expectation of organization is higher, so the core staff's performance management should be closely linked with other human resource management module, strengthen the incentive and long-term performance results, timely feedback to the core staff, and the results as an important basis for personal training and development, incentive compensation, career advancement.
3 performance management for senior executives
Performance management is a process that needs the full participation of the enterprise. In the target setting process, the enterprise should be decomposed to the individual, and in the evaluation and feedback stage, the results will be reported to the top management of the enterprise. In theory, according to the 360 degree performance evaluation of the idea, the enterprise staff can become the evaluation of others, but also by the assessment of others. But in the actual management process, senior managers only play the role of the assessment of others, the lack of effective, operational strong for the top management of their own assessment indicators and performance management system. [8]
More often, there is no lack of evaluation indicators for senior managers, but their ideas about the performance management has not changed, that is, performance management should not only be on the evaluation, but also include the evaluation of the performance results of feedback to the higher level managers to better guide the next phase of performance.
In fact, it is more important for senior managers to manage the performance management than the average employee. On the one hand, the performance management of the executive is a very good self-examination and reflection process; on the other hand, the performance management can also make the senior staff in the role of a good example to participate in performance management. Therefore, in order to break the "no one" situation, to break the "no one dare to test" situation, to break the "no one dare to test" situation, take the initiative to assume the responsibility of "the assessment", should be the top managers in enterprises should take the responsibility to avoid falling into the management "short-sighted".
(four) the change and innovation of the concept of performance management
Performance management has experienced from the results oriented to the behavior oriented, and then to the potential of the transformation. On the concept of individual job performance, the definition of the initial performance concept is only concerned about the results of the completion of the results, the researchers found that the performance objectives of the process will be completed in the performance of the attitude into the performance measurement system, can effectively solve the problem is difficult to quantify and other issues. The two factor model of Borman, Motowidle (1993) and the eight factor model of Campbell (1990) are the most common measures of performance measurement. Borman and Motowidle are the common characters in the work place, and the work performance is divided into two aspects: task performance and contextual performance.
Campbell et al pay attention to the results of the work tasks themselves, and make a more detailed division, that is, the work performance by the specific task of skilled, non specific job skills, written and verbal communication skills, work hard, discipline, and promote colleagues and team performance, supervision and leadership, management and Implementation of these eight parts. [9] with the development of theory and practice, to change and dynamic organizational environment for employees to adapt to the dynamic environment to meet the new requirements, the need for new indicators to accurately and comprehensively measure the performance of individual work. Allworth and Hesketh first proposed the concept of performance Adaptive based on the two factor model, [10] is used to judge the quick response of the individual to the changes in the situation and the sensitivity to the long-term situation. The effects of adaptive performance can be analyzed from the aspects of individual, team and organization. The adaptive performance of individual level can be divided into three types: active adaptive behavior, adaptive behavior and tolerance behavior. The adaptability of team level mainly refers to the individual's ability to integrate into groups and reduce team conflict and affect the team's ability. The adaptive performance mainly refers to individual's ability to help organizations find opportunities in diverse environments and to construct learning organization to lead the whole organization to innovation development path.
The introduction of the concept of adaptive performance to the performance management research breakthrough reflected in three aspects. Firstly, we expand the research area of performance management from the depth and breadth, including the three factor model, which includes task performance, contextual performance and adaptive performance, can be more comprehensive to reflect the employee's working behavior and general performance. Especially in the case of knowledge workers as the main body of the creative team, the task performance is difficult to quantify, the surrounding performance is difficult to control and observe the situation, adaptive performance can better compensate for the performance objectives and performance evaluation process of the problem. Secondly, the adaptive performance focuses on the new adaptive ability, creative ability and the ability to analyze the uncertainty environment, and overcome the shortcomings of the traditional performance evaluation. Finally, the construction of the organization to improve the adaptability of individual performance oriented organization, it will also be more strategic forward-looking, can strive to create a learning organization based on the creative atmosphere. [11]
(five) change and innovation of performance management tools
Performance management in the tools and methods also experienced from the financial management tool to a comprehensive, intelligent management tool change. Common performance management methods and tools of Du Pont analysis method, radar, wal score method, target management, key performance indicators, EVA, 6 Sigma method, balanced score card and so on. With the development of business intelligence, the performance of the instrument panel to enter the field of vision.
The performance instrument panel, which is generated in the end of 1990s, is a multi - level application, which can realize the enterprise performance measurement, measurement and management. Performance instrument panel is not only a performance management graphics, but also a detailed and informative, optimizing enterprise management, and promote the realization of enterprise strategic objectives information system. Focus on strategy is the biggest advantage of the dashboard, it can transform the corporate strategy into every team and even every member should achieve the specific measures, objectives and action plan. On each working day, employees landing performance dashboard information management system, it will be clear that the company's strategy and how to complete their work to help organizations achieve these goals. At the same time, the performance instrument panel is like a steering wheel on the road, in the process of achieving and improving the performance goals, the Corrections Corporation strategy. In short, the performance dashboard based on the enterprise information management system is developed to provide accurate information to the user in the right time, in order to achieve the optimization of decision-making, and to improve the efficiency of enterprises and accelerate the summary results. With the development of business intelligence and network sharing technology, the performance instrument panel will become an important tool in the field of human resource management after the balanced scorecard.
Three, summary and Outlook
The idea of performance management with the management theory and practice always exists, establish the scientific system of it has been more than half a century, in the development process of the half century, all aspects of performance management have undergone tremendous changes, the reform and innovation are summarized as five major changes: (1) from the traditional the performance appraisal into comprehensive, strategic performance management; (2) from the level of staff to improve performance as the goal to improve employee engagement into target; (3) from the staff Ji Wu Shao Tang, Ding long, summer: performance management reform and innovation research of the efficiency to team performance, the transition from general employee performance to the core staff, knowledge workers, executive performance; (4) from the results oriented to the behavior oriented, change to the potential orientation; (5) from the financial management tools to complete, The transformation of intelligent management tools.
For a long time, performance management has been the most frequently used in enterprise management, the most widely used, but also often because of its implementation complexity, and interest linked to many practical problems and criticized, become the daily management practice in the most reluctant to talk about the topic. The improvement and innovation of the performance management has been around how to improve the performance management system based on the performance management to achieve the enterprise strategic goals, to help enterprises and employees to improve the existing performance level and to improve the performance management system based on the construction of harmonious labor relations. The change of performance management is long-term and coherent, and the advantages of innovation will also be highlighted in the change.